LEARNING

Learning can be defined as a relatively permanent change in the cognition, which is reflected by the change in the action or behavior of the individual. Sometimes learning brings subtle changes in the cognition and only slightly changes the behavior as the changes happen only internally. Learning is closely related to our memory, our brain stores data in neurons by the electrochemical changes.

Theories of learning

1.    Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

According to this theory of learning, people learn through observing behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors of others’. These observations are made from our early childhood. A child start learning from observing the behaviors of their parents, siblings etc when later on he learn from observing the world around him, like the neighborhood, school, friends etc. the observations made become the basis of the actions or behaviors in the future, the individual behave according to the observation being made by him. E.g child by observing his parents learn various actions & in near future he will also start performing the similar actions.  The observations made by the individual make some cognitive changes in him & based on its application & his personal experience he will strengthen or modify such learning. Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental influences.

The learning through observation learning is influenced by following factors

• Attention — the attention of the observer will decide the learning & its outcome. The attention will depend upon various factors attraction, distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence, complexity, functional value. Levels of attention also depend on the individual’s characteristics e.g. sensory capacities, arousal level, perceptual set, past reinforcement etc.
• Retention — it is the amount of memorizing or retaining the observation in your mind by coding the observation & its constituents. When an individual observe by symbolic coding, mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor rehearsal etc the details of observation is recorded in the brain. The level of retention will depend on the attention level of the individual in recording he details of the observation.
• Reproduction — it is the process of performing or repeating the observed behavior or action by the observer & evaluating it. It is the change in the behavior or actions of the individual after the learning.
• Motivation — it is having a good reason to imitate the observed behavior the level of motivation depends on the attractiveness of the observation & its outcomes, perceived incentives & need of the observer.

According to Bandura this theory defines the concept of  “reciprocal determinism”, that is, the world and a person’s behavior cause each other, while behaviorism essentially states that one’s environment causes one’s behavior. Bandura considered personality as an interaction between three components: the environment, behavior, and one’s psychological processes (one’s ability to entertain images in minds and language).

2.    Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov)

Several types of learning exist. The most basic form is associative learning, i.e., making a new association between events in the environment. There are two forms of associative learning: classical conditioning (made famous by Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with dogs) and operant conditioning.

Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov did Nobel prize-winning work on digestion. While studying the role of saliva in dogs’ digestive processes, he accidentally discovered that there is some relation between the stimuli or sounds just before the meat powder was presented & the salivation process of the dog.

Fascinated by this finding, Pavlov paired the meat powder with various stimuli such as the ringing of a bell. Repeatedly the bell was rung just before the meat powder is given to the dog. Later on only bell was rung but no meat powder was given, but as predicted, dog responded by salivating to the sound of the bell (without the food). The bell began as a neutral stimulus (i.e. the bell itself did not produce the dogs’ salivation). However, by pairing the bell with the stimulus that did produce the salivation response, the bell was able to acquire the ability to trigger the salivation response. Pavlov therefore demonstrated how stimulus-response bonds (which some consider as the basic building blocks of learning) are formed. He dedicated much of the rest of his career further exploring this finding.

In technical terms, the meat powder is considered an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) and the dog’s salivation is the unconditioned response (UCR). The bell is a neutral stimulus until the dog learns to associate the bell with food. Then the bell becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) which produces the conditioned response (CR) of salivation after repeated pairings between the bell and food.

3.    Reinforcement Theory ( B.F. Skinner )

According to B.F. Skinner learning is a function of change in overt or visible behavior. According to Skinner individual respond to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment, it is the consequences that will determine whether the action or behavior will be repeated or not by the individual. So we can condition the behavior of the individual by altering the consequences to the responses towards stimuli.

The consequence which strengthen the desired behavior is known as reinforcer

One of the distinctive aspects of Skinner's theory is that it attempted to provide behavioral explanations for a broad range of cognitive phenomena. For example, Skinner explained drive (motivation) in terms of deprivation and reinforcement schedules. Skinner (1957) tried to account for verbal learning and language within the operant conditioning paradigm, although this effort was strongly rejected by linguists and psycholinguists. Skinner (1971) deals with the issue of free will and social control.

Reinforcement theory is the process of shaping behavior by controlling the consequences of the behavior. In reinforcement theory a combination of rewards and/or punishments is used to reinforce desired behavior or extinguish unwanted behavior. Any behavior that elicits a consequence is called operant behavior, because the individual operates on his or her environment. Reinforcement theory concentrates on the relationship between the operant behavior and the associated consequences, and is sometimes referred to as operant conditioning.

BACKGROUND AND DEVELOPMENT OF REINFORCEMENT THEORY

Behavioral theories of learning and motivation focus on the effect that the consequences of past behavior have on future behavior. This is in contrast to classical conditioning, which focuses on responses that are triggered by stimuli in an almost automatic fashion. Reinforcement theory suggests that individuals can choose from several responses to a given stimulus, and that individuals will generally select the response that has been associated with positive outcomes in the past. E.L. Thorndike articulated this idea in 1911, in what has come to be known as the law of effect. The law of effect basically states that, all other things being equal, responses to stimuli that are followed by satisfaction will be strengthened, but responses that are followed by discomfort will be weakened.

B.F. Skinner was a key contributor to the development of modern ideas about reinforcement theory. Skinner argued that the internal needs and drives of individuals can be ignored because people learn to exhibit certain behaviors based on what happens to them as a result of their behavior. This school of thought has been termed the behaviorist, or radical behaviorist, school.

REINFORCEMENT, PUNISHMENT, AND EXTINCTION

·         Positive reinforcement: - when the desired behavior by the individual result in favorable or desirable consequence. When individual receive the favorable consequence he will try to repeat the action so as to get the same consequences. E.g. an appreciation letter by manger to a team leader to complete the project before time will increase the probability that the team leader will show similar behavior in future.

·         Negative reinforcement:-  results when an undesirable behavioral consequence is withheld, with the effect of strengthening the probability of the behavior being repeated. Negative reinforcement is often confused with punishment, but they are not the same. Punishment attempts to decrease the probability of specific behaviors; negative reinforcement attempts to increase desired behavior, e.g. a sales manager being more lenient towards a sales executive achieving higher sales volume. This lenient behavior will prompt the sales executive to achieve higher sales on a regular basis.

·         Punishment:- when an undesirable action or behavior is subjected to undesirable consequence, this prompts the individual not to repeat the same behavior is known as punishment. E.g. when an employee comes on duty in drunk condition the manager didn’t allow him to work & deduct the wages of that day in attempt to modify the behavior is a punishment. Here coming on duty in drunken condition is the undesirable behavior for the organization, removing the worker from work & deducting his wages for the day is the undesirable consequences for the employee. By this way the employee will not repeat this behavior as his actions met with the undesirable consequences. Punishments are used in an attempt to decrease the probability of specific behaviors being exhibited. Punishments should be used with caution as irresponsible and frequent use of this will result in demotivation of the employees or its efficacy will also be lowered.

·         Extinction:- it is a process of withholding a desirable or favorable consequence as a result of undesirable behavior in an attempt to modify the behavior is known as extinction. Similar to punishment in that its purpose is to reduce unwanted behavior. E.g. the promotion or increment of an employee is withheld due to his irregularities in the working, this withholding of a desirable consequence will prompt the individual to modify his behavior & show betterment in his job to get the promotion or increment.

SCHEDULES OF REINFORCEMENT

The timing of the behavioral consequences that follow a given behavior is called the reinforcement schedule. Basically, there are two broad types of reinforcement schedules: continuous and intermittent.

·         Continuous reinforcement:-  it is a schedule of reinforcement where a behavior is reinforced each time it occurs. This type of reinforcement is the fastest way to establish new behaviors or to eliminate undesired behaviors. But it is not consistent in its efficacy & not feasible and practical in an organization

·         Intermittent reinforcement: - it is a schedule of reinforcement where each instance of a desired behavior is not reinforced. The reinforcement is done intermittently, based on the frequency & proportion of consequence to behavior we can define four types of intermittent reinforcement schedules: fixed interval, fixed ratio, variable interval, and variable ratio.

·         Fixed interval schedules of reinforcement:- when desired behaviors are reinforced after set periods of time. E.g. monthly salary, annual increments etc.

·         Fixed ratio schedule of reinforcement:- when reinforcement is done after a set number of occurrences of the desired behaviors . e.g. the incentive to a sales officer is only given when he surpasses the given targets.

·         Variable interval reinforcement schedules:- when desired behaviors are reinforced after varying periods of time. Usually the timing is not know by the individual examples of variable interval schedules special incentive or promotion to an employee showing better performance.

·         Variable ratio reinforcement schedule:- when the reinforcement is done after a number of desired behaviors have occurred, the number of occurrence is variable depending on other factors ,e.g. the percentage of sales incentive depending on the percentage achievement of the sales target.

REINFORCEMENT THEORY APPLIED TO ORGANIZATIONAL SETTINGS

Probably the best-known application of the principles of reinforcement theory to organizational settings is called behavioral modification, or behavioral contingency management. Typically, a behavioral modification program consists of four steps:

• Specifying the desired behavior as objectively as possible.
• Measuring the current incidence of desired behavior.
• Providing behavioral consequences that reinforce desired behavior.
• Determining the effectiveness of the program by systematically assessing behavioral change.

Reinforcement theory is an important explanation of how people learn behavior. It is often applied to organizational settings in the context of a behavioral modification program. Although the assumptions of reinforcement theory are often criticized, its principles continue to offer important insights into individual learning and motivation.

Operant Conditioning

According to operant conditioning theory of learning if the responses to behaviors are favorable or desirable then the individual will try to repeat or further improve that behavior in future and if the responses to behaviors are not favorable and desirable then the behaviors will be altered or not repeated. So the behaviors are the function of its consequences. It emphasizes on voluntary behaviors and the responses one get from the environment.

Cognitive theory of learning

According to cognitive theory of learning, it is a process that represents changes in the content, organization and storage of information within the individual and can’t be represented only by changes in the behavior, secondly the learner control the process of learning by selecting what is significant or insignificant to him.

The learning is through two processes accommodation and assimilation, where accommodation is the process of changing content by addition of new information and assimilation is the incorporation of new experience in to existing categories.

Experiential Learning Theory (David Kolb)

Cycle of Learning:- it is the main principle of experiential learning theory, and expressed as four stage cycle of learning begin with 'immediate or concrete experiences'  which provide a basis for 'observations and reflections, which are assimilated and distilled into 'abstract concepts' producing new implications for action which can be 'actively tested' in turn creating new experiences.

According to Kolb a learner will go through a cycle of experiencing, reflecting, thinking, and acting.

Kolb's model therefore works on two levels - a four-stage cycle:

·         Concrete Experience - (CE)

·         Reflective Observation - (RO)

·         Abstract Conceptualization - (AC)

·         Active Experimentation - (AE)

Based on the above Kolb had defined four styles of learning

·         Diverging (CE/RO)

·         Assimilating (AC/RO)

·         Converging (AC/AE)

·         Accommodating (CE/AE)

According to experiential learning if we know the orientation of learner then we can use a preferred method to make him learn the new things.

Here are brief descriptions of the four Kolb learning styles:

·         Diverging (feeling and watching - CE/RO) - These people are able to look at things from different perspectives. They are sensitive. They prefer to watch rather than do, tending to gather information and use imagination to solve problems. They are best at viewing concrete situations several different viewpoints. Kolb called this style 'Diverging' because these people perform better in situations that require ideas-generation, for example, brainstorming. People with a Diverging learning style have broad cultural interests and like to gather information. They are interested in people, tend to be imaginative and emotional, and tend to be strong in the arts. People with the Diverging style prefer to work in groups, to listen with an open mind and to receive personal feedback.

·         Assimilating (watching and thinking - AC/RO) - The Assimilating learning preference is for a concise, logical approach. Ideas and concepts are more important than people. These people require good clear explanation rather than practical opportunity. They excel at understanding wide-ranging information and organizing it a clear logical format. People with an Assimilating learning style are less focused on people and more interested in ideas and abstract concepts. People with this style are more attracted to logically sound theories than approaches based on practical value. These learning style people are important for effectiveness in information and science careers. In formal learning situations, people with this style prefer readings, lectures, exploring analytical models, and having time to think things through.

·         Converging (doing and thinking - AC/AE) - People with a Converging learning style can solve problems and will use their learning to find solutions to practical issues. They prefer technical tasks, and are less concerned with people and interpersonal aspects. People with a Converging learning style are best at finding practical uses for ideas and theories. They can solve problems and make decisions by finding solutions to questions and problems. People with a Converging learning style are more attracted to technical tasks and problems than social or interpersonal issues. A Converging learning style enables specialist and technology abilities. People with a Converging style like to experiment with new ideas, to simulate, and to work with practical applications.

·         Accommodating (doing and feeling - CE/AE) - The Accommodating learning style is 'hands-on', and relies on intuition rather than logic. These people use other people's analysis, and prefer to take a practical, experiential approach. They are attracted to new challenges and experiences, and to carrying out plans. They commonly act on 'gut' instinct rather than logical analysis. People with an Accommodating learning style will tend to rely on others for information than carry out their own analysis. This learning style is prevalent and useful in roles requiring action and initiative. People with an Accommodating learning style prefer to work in teams to complete tasks. They set targets and actively work in the field trying different ways to achieve an objective.